# 16. Structures

A structure groups values that belong together. Commodore BASIC 7.0 has nothing like
it — this is entirely an addition, and Chapter 13 lists it with the other differences.

A structure variable's name ends in **`@`**, the fourth type suffix:

| Suffix | Type |
|---|---|
| `#` | integer |
| `%` | floating point |
| `$` | string |
| `@` | structure |

## Declaring a type

`TYPE` … `END TYPE` names a record and lists its fields, one per line. **Each field takes
its type from its own suffix**, the same rule every other name in this language follows,
so a field list needs no type column:

```basic
10 TYPE RECT
20   W#
30   H#
40 END TYPE
50 DIM R@ AS RECT
60 R@.W# = 3
70 R@.H# = 4
80 PRINT R@.W# * R@.H#
90 PRINT R@
```

```output
12
RECT(W#=3, H#=4)
```

`DIM name@ AS TYPE` is how a variable gets storage, and it is required — unlike an
ordinary variable, a structure cannot spring into existence on first use, because
nothing would say which type it is.

**A type name is a bare word, and so is every verb**, so the two share a namespace.
`TYPE POINT` is refused, because `POINT` is a verb:

```basic
10 TYPE POINT
20   X#
30 END TYPE
40 PRINT 1
```

```output
? 10 : PARSE ERROR TYPE POINT: POINT is a reserved word and cannot name a type

```

The same applies to field names, for the same reason a variable cannot be called `TO#`.

## Nesting

A field may be another structure, named with `AS`:

```basic
10 TYPE COORD
20   X#
30   Y#
40 END TYPE
50 TYPE SHAPE
60   NAME$
70   ORIGIN@ AS COORD
80 END TYPE
90 DIM S@ AS SHAPE
100 S@.NAME$ = "BOX"
110 S@.ORIGIN@.X# = 10
120 PRINT S@
```

```output
SHAPE(NAME$=BOX, ORIGIN@=COORD(X#=10, Y#=0))
```

`@` on its own says "a structure" but not *which*, which is why a structure field has to
name its type where `W#` does not. Three primitive types fit in three suffix characters;
ten declared types do not fit in one.

## Assignment copies

**This is the rule to remember.** A structure behaves like every other value here:

```basic
10 TYPE RECT
20   W#
30 END TYPE
40 DIM A@ AS RECT
50 DIM B@ AS RECT
60 A@.W# = 1
70 B@ = A@
80 A@.W# = 99
90 PRINT B@.W#
```

```output
1
```

`B@` is its own record from line 70 onward. Nesting copies too — a whole record, however
deep, moves as a unit.

## Pointers

When you want two names for *one* record, say so. A pointer is a distinct declared kind:

```basic
10 TYPE RECT
20   W#
30 END TYPE
40 DIM A@ AS RECT
50 DIM P@ AS PTR TO RECT
60 A@.W# = 1
70 POINT P@ AT A@
80 P@->W# = 99
90 PRINT A@.W#
```

```output
99
```

Three things are deliberate:

- **`POINT` is the only way to share.** A program that never writes it can never be
  surprised by aliasing.
- **`.` reaches a field of a structure and `->` reaches one through a pointer.** They do
  not stand in for one another, and using the wrong one is an error that names the other.
  So a reader always knows from the spelling whether the thing on the left is their own
  copy or somebody else's data.
- **A pointer with nothing behind it is `NOTHING`**, and dereferencing it is refused
  rather than being a crash.

```basic
10 TYPE RECT
20   W#
30 END TYPE
40 DIM P@ AS PTR TO RECT
50 PRINT P@
60 PRINT P@->W#
```

```output
NOTHING
? 60 : RUNTIME ERROR This pointer is not pointing at anything yet; POINT it AT a structure first

```

## Lists and trees

A `TYPE` may refer to **itself only through a pointer** — by value it would have no
finite size, and that is refused at declaration. Which is exactly what makes a list
possible:

```basic
10 TYPE NODE
20   COUNT#
30   TAIL@ AS PTR TO NODE
40 END TYPE
50 DIM N1@ AS NODE
60 DIM N2@ AS NODE
70 N1@.COUNT# = 10
80 N2@.COUNT# = 20
90 POINT N1@.TAIL@ AT N2@
100 DIM WALK@ AS PTR TO NODE
110 POINT WALK@ AT N1@
120 PRINT WALK@->COUNT#
130 WALK@ = WALK@->TAIL@
140 PRINT WALK@->COUNT#
150 PRINT N1@
```

```output
10
20
NODE(COUNT#=10, TAIL@=NODE(COUNT#=20, TAIL@=NOTHING))
```

Note line 130: assigning one *pointer* to another copies the reference, not the record.
That is the one place assignment does not deep-copy, and it is why pointers are declared
separately rather than being a mode a structure can be in.

**A pointer is true when it points at something**, which is how a walk knows where the
list ends — and a recursive `DEF` can do the walking:

```basic
10 TYPE NODE
20   COUNT#
30   TAIL@ AS PTR TO NODE
40 END TYPE
50 DIM N1@ AS NODE
60 DIM N2@ AS NODE
70 N1@.COUNT# = 10
80 N2@.COUNT# = 20
90 POINT N1@.TAIL@ AT N2@
100 DEF TOTAL(P@ AS PTR TO NODE)
110 IF P@->TAIL@ THEN RETURN P@->COUNT# + TOTAL(P@->TAIL@)
120 RETURN P@->COUNT#
130 DIM W@ AS PTR TO NODE
140 POINT W@ AT N1@
150 PRINT TOTAL(W@)
```

```output
30
```

`NOT` is the bitwise operator here, so write the test the positive way round as line 110
does. Recursion is bounded by the scope pool at 32 deep, the same bound `GOSUB` has.

`PRINT` follows pointers, so a cycle would not come back — it stops after four levels and
prints `(...)`.

## Passing a structure to a function

A parameter names its type, exactly as `DIM` does:

```basic
10 TYPE CRATE
20   W#
30   H#
40 END TYPE
50 DIM A@ AS CRATE
60 A@.W# = 5
70 A@.H# = 3
80 DEF AREA(B@ AS CRATE) = B@.W# * B@.H#
90 PRINT AREA(A@)
```

```output
15
```

**A bare `B@` is refused.** `@` says "a structure" without saying which, so it does not
state a contract the way `B$` does — and accepting it would mean checking fields at the
call instead of at the declaration, which is the hole naming the type closes. The cost is
that there are no generic functions: one `AREA` cannot serve `CRATE` and `BOXY`.

**Passing is by value**, because a parameter is bound by assignment and assignment copies:

```basic
10 TYPE CRATE
20   W#
30 END TYPE
40 DIM A@ AS CRATE
50 A@.W# = 5
60 DEF WIDEN(B@ AS CRATE)
70 B@.W# = 99
80 RETURN B@.W#
90 PRINT WIDEN(A@)
100 PRINT A@.W#
```

```output
99
5
```

The function saw 99; the caller still has 5. To change a caller's record on purpose, pass
a pointer — `DEF POKEIT(P@ AS PTR TO CRATE)` — and reach through it with `->`. Neither is
a special rule: both fall out of the parameter being assigned like any other variable.

A pointer parameter's own reference is kept in the call variable's inline slot, so repeated
calls do not spend the value pool. Its target remains the caller's structure. A by-value
structure parameter is different: its copied slots remain in the value pool because
`POINT Q@ AT B@` may retain a pointer to that copy after the function returns. Until escape
analysis can distinguish that case, **do not call a by-value structure-parameter function in
a loop**; bind a host global and rebind it per instance instead.

## What is checked, and what is not

A field name is checked against the set the type declared, and the refusal lists the
fields that do exist:

```basic
10 TYPE RECT
20   W#
30   H#
40 END TYPE
50 DIM R@ AS RECT
60 PRINT TOTLA#
70 PRINT R@.NOPE#
```

```output
0
? 70 : RUNTIME ERROR RECT has no field NOPE# (W#, H#)

```

Line 60 is the contrast worth understanding. **A misspelled variable is still silent** —
`TOTLA#` prints zero, as it does in every BASIC ever written. A misspelled *field* is
not, because the set of fields is closed and the program wrote it down.

That is the rule underneath both: **what the program declared gets checked, and what it
did not gets shrugged at.** A variable's name is never declared, so it cannot be checked.
A `TYPE`'s field list is, so it can be. Structures end up the strictest thing in the
language, not because they are held to a higher standard but because they are the only
named thing whose valid spellings are written down.

## Sharing a structure with a host

If you are embedding the interpreter in a game, a script can read and write **the game's
own C structs** — not a copy of them. The host describes its struct once:

```c norun
typedef struct
{
    char     name[32];
    int32_t  hp;
    float    x;
    bool     hostile;
} game_Enemy;

static const akbasic_HostField ENEMY_FIELDS[] = {
    /*                  struct       member    BASIC name   C representation           */
    AKBASIC_HOST_FIELD( game_Enemy,  name,     "NAME$",     AKBASIC_HOSTFIELD_CSTRING ),
    AKBASIC_HOST_FIELD( game_Enemy,  hp,       "HP#",       AKBASIC_HOSTFIELD_INT32   ),
    AKBASIC_HOST_FIELD( game_Enemy,  x,        "X%",        AKBASIC_HOSTFIELD_FLOAT   ),
    AKBASIC_HOST_FIELD( game_Enemy,  hostile,  "HOSTILE#",  AKBASIC_HOSTFIELD_BOOL    )
};

static const akbasic_HostType ENEMY_TYPE = {
    "ENEMY", sizeof(game_Enemy), ENEMY_FIELDS, 4
};

akbasic_host_register_type(&SCRIPT, &ENEMY_TYPE);
akbasic_host_bind(&SCRIPT, "FOE@", "ENEMY", &GOBLIN);
```

and the script then works on `FOE@` like any other structure:

```basic norun
10 PRINT FOE@.NAME$ + " HAS " + FOE@.HP#
20 FOE@.HP# = FOE@.HP# - 10
```

Line 20 decrements `GOBLIN.hp` in place. There is no marshalling step.

`examples/hoststruct.c` is a complete working host, built and run by every build.
Chapter 10 covers the rest of the embedding API; the parts specific to structures:

| Call | Does |
|---|---|
| `akbasic_host_register_type` | Makes a C struct available as a BASIC type |
| `akbasic_host_bind` | Binds one instance to a script variable |
| `akbasic_host_rebind` | Points that name at a different instance — the per-frame call |
| `akbasic_host_unbind` | Breaks the binding before the storage goes away |

Three things a host should know:

- **Conversion refuses rather than truncates.** Assigning 70000 to an `int16_t` field, or
  forty characters to a `char[32]`, is an error naming the field.
- **A host `float` round-trips lossily**, because BASIC floats are doubles. A `char[]` has
  a width that BASIC strings do not.
- **A bound instance must outlive the binding.** It is the only pointer this interpreter
  holds that it did not allocate; `akbasic_host_unbind()` exists for exactly that.

## Limits

| | |
|---|---|
| Types | 16 |
| Fields per type | 16 |
| Nesting shown by `PRINT` | 4 levels |

An instance's fields come out of the same value pool arrays use, so the 4096-element
budget in Chapter 13 covers both. **Nothing is reclaimed** — a structure lasts until
`CLR` or `NEW`, exactly as an array does, and that is what lets a pointer into a record
stay sound after the scope that declared it has gone. Scalars are the exception and are
not in the pool at all; they live in the variable, so creating one inside a scope costs
nothing.
