Files

Chapter 2 gets the rule and the refusal, chapter 4 gets the payoff for
LABEL, chapter 9 says DSAVE writes the numbers it handed out and to
RENUMBER first if you want gaps, chapter 10 shows a host loading numberless
source, chapter 13 gets the QuickBASIC-shaped divergence, and chapter 14's
source[] passage gets its second half.

Chapter 14 said "two prescans" and listed two; there were three before this
and there are four now, so it lists all four and says which of them reports
against the right line.

TODO.md section 6 records four things found on the way and deliberately not
fixed: set_label() filing into the active scope rather than the root, three
prescans reporting the wrong line number, duplicate written line numbers
still replacing silently, and renumber.c's file-scope scratch arrays.

examples/embed.c runs the same program twice, numbered and not, so the
example compiles the feature rather than describing it. Its header pointed
at ./build/examples/embed, which is not where the binary lands.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 5 (1M context) <noreply@anthropic.com>

2026-08-01 16:43:14 -04:00

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4. Control flow

IF ... THEN ... ELSE

10 A# = 5
20 IF A# = 5 THEN PRINT "FIVE" ELSE PRINT "NOT FIVE"

FIVE

The condition is a whole expression, so AND, OR and NOT all work in one:

10 A# = 5
20 IF A# > 0 AND A# < 10 THEN PRINT "IN RANGE"

IN RANGE

Everything after THEN on the line belongs to the condition, which matters as soon as you put several statements on a line:

Line	Condition	What runs
`IF C THEN A : B`	true	`A`, `B`
`IF C THEN A : B`	false	nothing
`IF C THEN A ELSE B : D`	true	`A`
`IF C THEN A ELSE B : D`	false	`B`, `D`

The remainder always belongs to whichever arm was written last.

Blocks

BEGIN and BEND make an IF span lines:

10 A# = 5
20 IF A# = 5 THEN BEGIN
30   PRINT "IN THE BLOCK"
40   PRINT "STILL IN IT"
50 BEND
60 PRINT "AFTER"

IN THE BLOCK
STILL IN IT
AFTER

When the condition is false every line up to the BEND is skipped.

FOR ... NEXT

10 FOR I# = 1 TO 5
20   PRINT I#
30 NEXT I#

STEP sets the stride, and a negative one counts down:

10 FOR I# = 10 TO 0 STEP -2
20   PRINT I#
30 NEXT I#

The counter is an ordinary variable and the body may assign to it. Two things to know:

The counter does not survive the loop. It lives in the loop's own scope, so reading it afterwards gives zero. On a C128 it keeps its final value.
A step that overshoots runs the body one extra time. FOR I = 1 TO 9 STEP 3 runs with 1, 4, 7 and 10. Both are recorded as known defects; see Chapter 13.

EXIT leaves the loop early:

10 FOR I# = 1 TO 100
20   IF I# = 5 THEN EXIT
30 NEXT I#
40 PRINT "OUT"

OUT

DO ... LOOP

The condition can go on either end, or neither:

10 I# = 0
20 DO WHILE I# < 3
30   PRINT I#
40   I# = I# + 1
50 LOOP

0
1
2

10 I# = 0
20 DO
30   PRINT I#
40   I# = I# + 1
50 LOOP UNTIL I# = 3

0
1
2

A condition on the DO is tested before the body, so the body may run zero times. A condition on the LOOP is tested after, so it runs at least once. DO with no condition at all loops forever until an EXIT or a GOTO leaves it.

EXIT works here too.

GOTO and GOSUB

10 GOSUB 100
20 PRINT "BACK"
30 END
100 PRINT "IN THE SUBROUTINE"
110 RETURN

IN THE SUBROUTINE
BACK

RETURN goes back to the line after the GOSUB.

Labels

A label is a name with no type suffix. It marks a line, and anything that takes a line number takes a label instead:

10 GOTO SETUP
20 PRINT "SKIPPED"
100 LABEL SETUP
110 PRINT "ARRIVED"

ARRIVED

Labels are filed before the program runs, so a forward GOTO works. This is worth using for its own sake: a program written with labels is immune to RENUMBER, because there is no number to rewrite.

Follow that one step further and the numbers stop earning their keep at all. A program in a file can leave them out — see Chapter 2 — and then every branch it makes is by name:

GOSUB GREET
GOTO FINISH

PRINT "NOT REACHED"

LABEL GREET
PRINT "HELLO"
RETURN

LABEL FINISH
PRINT "DONE"

HELLO
DONE

Nothing in that program can be broken by inserting a line into it, which is the whole argument.

ON

ON picks the nth target from a list, counting from one:

10 CHOICE# = 2
20 ON CHOICE# GOTO 100, 200, 300
30 PRINT "CHOICE WAS OUT OF RANGE"
40 END
100 PRINT "FIRST"
110 END
200 PRINT "SECOND"
210 END
300 PRINT "THIRD"

SECOND

Out of range is not an error — it falls through to the next statement, which is what lets you write the check as the line after. ON ... GOSUB works the same way and returns.

Trapping errors

TRAP sends an error to a handler instead of stopping the program:

10 TRAP HANDLER
20 DIM Q#(2)
30 PRINT Q#(9)
40 PRINT "CARRIED ON"
50 END
100 LABEL HANDLER
110 PRINT "CAUGHT " + ERR(ER#) + " ON LINE " + EL#
120 RESUME NEXT

CAUGHT Out Of Bounds ON LINE 30
CARRIED ON

Two variables are set when the trap fires: ER# is the error code and EL# is the line it happened on. ERR(ER#) gives the message text. On a C128 these are called ER and EL with no suffix; this dialect has no bare variable names.

Chapter 15 is the complete list of what ER# can hold and what each code means. The short version is that the interpreter's own codes are 512 to 519 and are the only numbers worth comparing against; two codes render as the same ERR() text, so compare the number rather than the text.

RESUME comes in three forms:

Form	Where it goes
`RESUME`	back to the line that failed, and tries again
`RESUME NEXT`	on to the line after the one that failed
`RESUME (line)`	to a line you name

Bare RESUME only terminates if the handler fixed whatever was wrong — that is what it is for.

TRAP with no argument turns trapping off. An error inside a handler is reported normally rather than re-entering it, so a broken handler cannot loop forever.

STOP, END and CONT

STOP stops the program and returns to the prompt; CONT resumes from there. END stops it without arming CONT. QUIT ends the interpreter itself.

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